In this Master's Degree, the main pathologies that can appear in the animal eye are studied, as are the most appropriate methods of diagnosis, treatment and approach in each case" 

Veterinary ophthalmology has advanced at a rapid pace in recent decades, which has allowed specialists to solve or mitigate ocular problems that negatively affect the quality of life of animals.

The Master's Degree in Veterinary Ophthalmology in Small Animals includes all the advances made in the study of ophthalmologic diseases and their treatment. It compiles and develops these aspects to provide veterinary professionals with a clear, in depth and up to date overview of Veterinary Ophthalmology in Small Animals, and thereby allows them to apply the knowledge acquired.  

The topics presented in this Master's Degree have been selected with the aim of offering comprehensive, specialized and advanced studies in Ophthalmology that will allow veterinary professionals to develop in depth knowledge with which to address ocular disorders in small animals, in this case, those in dogs and cats.   

Although the main subject of this Master's Degree is Ophthalmology as applied to dogs and cats, given that they are the species most commonly found in the veterinary clinic, Veterinary Ophthalmology in Exotic Animals also occupies an important place in the specialization. 

Finally, pathological and non-pathological alterations will also be studied, with special focus on the most appropriate medical and surgical treatments according to each case. This will provide students with general knowledge on the specialty, which will in turn allow them to practice with greater success in their daily practice. 

One of the problems affecting continued education is the difficulty professionals find in conciliating studies with work and personal routines. Current professional demands make it difficult to provide quality, specialized, face to face education, which is why our online format allows students to combine this updating program with their daily professional practice. 

In depth study and specialization in ophthalmological conditions, as well as the possibility to learn and improve specific and advanced diagnostic protocols, will allow students to establish the most appropriate medical and/or surgical treatment for each case"   

This Master's Degree in Veterinary Ophthalmology in Small Animals contains the most complete and up to date scientific program scientific the market. Its most important features include: 

• Case studies presented and developed by experts in Veterinary Ophthalmology
• Graphic, schematic, and practical contents created to provide scientific and practical information on the disciplines that are essential for professional practice
• Practical exercises where self assessment can be used to improve learning
• Its special emphasis on innovative methodologies
• Theoretical lessons, questions to the expert, debate forums on controversial topics, and individual reflection assignments
• Content that is accessible from any fixed or portable device with an Internet connection

Thanks to this comprehensive educational program, you will be able to provide a differential approach to ocular pathologies in small animals"

The program’s teaching staff includes professionals from the sector who contribute their work experience to this training program, as well as renowned specialists from leading societies and prestigious universities.  

The multimedia content, developed with the latest educational technology, will provide the professional with situated and contextual learning, i.e., a simulated environment that will provide immersion training programmed to train in real situations.  

This program is designed around Problem Based Learning, whereby the professional must try to solve the different professional practice situations that arise throughout the program. For this purpose, the student will be assisted by an innovative interactive video system created by renowned and experienced experts.   

As a differentiating aspect, this Master's Degree is not only focused on ocular pathologies of dogs and cats, but also addresses those of exotic animals"

Anatomical knowledge is essential for the correct interpretation of pathologies. This Master's Degree brings you all this knowledge from a unique and highly effective perspective"

For this Master's Degree, a group of high level professionals have designed the most comprehensive and in depth content compendium on the academic market. After enrolling in this program, students will be provided with multimedia materials and will gain a practical and theoretical insight that will help them learn everything they need to become successful veterinary ophthalmologists. A unique academic opportunity based on the best teaching methodology that will elevate professionals to the top of their careers.

Study with a proven teaching methodology and see how your career is boosted and moves one step further"

Module 1. Embryology, Anatomy, Physiology of Vision and Pharmacology

1.1. Embriology. Ocular Development 

1.1.1. Development of the Ocular Globe and Appendages 

1.1.1.1. Eyelids and Nasolacrimal System 
1.1.1.2. Conjunctiva and Nictitating Membrane 
1.1.1.3. Extraocular Muscles 

1.1.2. Anterior Segment Development 

1.1.2.1. Cornea 
1.1.2.2. Iridocorneal Angle 
1.1.2.3. Iris 
1.1.2.4. Lens 

1.1.3. Posterior Segment Development

1.1.3.1. Sclerosant 
1.1.3.2. Choroids 
1.1.3.3. Vitreous 
1.1.3.4. Retina 
1.1.3.5. Optic Nerve 
1.1.3.6. Tapetum 

1.2. Ocular Developmental Anomalies 

1.2.1. Ocular Developmental Anomalies 

1.2.1.1. Cyclopia and Synophthalmia 
1.2.1.2. Microphthalmia and Anophthalmia 
1.2.1.3. Palpebral Alterations 
1.2.1.4. Dermoids 
1.2.1.5. Anterior Segment Development 
1.2.1.6. Alterations of the Iris, Choroid and Sclera 
1.2.1.7. Congenital Cataracts 
1.2.1.8. Congenital Glaucoma 
1.2.1.9. Persistence of Primary Hyperplastic Vitreous Persistence of Vasculose Tunic 
1.2.1.10. Retinal Dysplasia 
1.2.1.11. Optic Nerve Alterations 

1.3. Ocular Anatomy 

1.3.1. Orbit  
1.3.2. Extraocular Muscles and Orbital Fat 
1.3.3. Ocular Globe 

1.4. Vascular Anatomy 

1.4.1. Vascular Anatomy 
1.4.2. Neuroanatomy  

1.5. Physiology 

1.5.1. Tear Film 
1.5.2. Aqueous Humor Physiology 
1.5.3. Blood-Aqueous Barrier 
1.5.4. Intraocular Pressure 

1.6. Physiology of Vision 

1.6.1. Light Sensitivity 
1.6.2. Motion Sensitivity 
1.6.3. Visual Field 
1.6.4. Visual Acuity 
1.6.5. Color Vision 

1.7. Ophthalmologic Drug Administration 

1.7.1. Ophthalmologic Medication Administration Routes 
1.7.2. Pharmacotherapy Enhancement 
1.7.3. Pharmacological Injections 

1.8. Anti-inflammatory, Antimicrobial and Pio Control Drugs

1.8.1. Anti-Inflammatory Drugs 

1.8.1.1. Glucocorticoids 
1.8.1.2. Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) 
1.8.1.3. Other Immunosuppressive Agents 

1.8.2. Antimicrobial Agents

1.8.2.1. Antibiotics 
1.8.2.2. Antimycotics 
1.8.2.3. Antivirals 
1.8.2.4. Disinfectants 

1.8.3. Anti-Inflammatory, Antimicrobial and Pio Control Drugs

1.8.3.1. Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors 
1.8.3.2. Prostaglandins 
1.8.3.3. Myotics Cholinergic Agents 
1.8.3.4. Adrenergic Drugs 

1.9. Cholinergic, Midriatic and Anesthetic Drugs 

1.9.1. Cholinergic Drugs  
1.9.2. Midriatic Drugs  
1.9.3. Anesthetic Drugs 

1.10. Artificial Tears, Tissue Adhesives and Hyperosmotic Agents 

1.10.1. Artificial Tears 
1.10.2. Tissue Adhesives 
1.10.3. Hyperosmotic Agents

Module 2. Ophthalmologic Examination and Complementary Tests

2.1. Ophthalmologic Examination 

2.1.1. Remote Ophthalmological Exploration 
2.1.2. Medical History 
2.1.3. Clamping Methods  
2.1.4. Basic Instruments for Ophthalmological Examination  

2.2. Direct and Indirect Ophthalmoscopy 

2.2.1. Direct Examination

2.2.1.1. Palpebral Reflex 
2.2.1.2. Threat Response 
2.2.1.3. Glare Reflex 
2.2.1.4. Pupillomotor Reflex 
2.2.1.5. Corneal Reflex 

2.2.2. Biomicroscopy 
2.2.3. Direct Ophthalmoscopy 
2.2.4. Indirect Ophthalmoscopy  

2.2.4.1. Monocular Indirect Ophthalmoscopy 
2.2.4.2. Binocular Indirect Ophthalmoscopy  

2.3. Ophthalmic Exploration Tests 

2.3.1. Schirmer Test  
2.3.2. Fluorescein Test  

2.3.2.1. Fluorescein Test 
2.3.2.2. Break Up Time (BUT) 
2.3.2.3. Test for Jones 
2.3.2.4. Test for Seidel 

2.3.3. Rose of Bengal  
2.3.4. Lysamine Green 

2.4. Tonometry  

2.4.1. Indentation Tonometry 
2.4.2. Applanation Tonometry 
2.4.3. Rebound Tonometry  

2.5. Gonioscopy 

2.5.1. Direct Gonioscopy 
2.5.2. Indirect Gonioscopy  

2.6. Cytology and Biopsies 

2.6.1. Cytology Sampling 

2.6.1.1. Conjunctival Cytology 
2.6.1.2. Corneal Cytology 
2.6.1.3. Aqueous Humor Cytology 
2.6.1.4. Urine Cytology 

2.6.2. Biopsy Sampling 

2.7. Ocular Ultrasound 

2.7.1. Anterior Segment Ultrasound 
2.7.2. Posterior Segment Ultrasound 
2.7.3. Orbit Ultrasound 

2.8. Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) 

2.8.1. Corneal OCT 
2.8.2. Iridocorneal Angle 
2.8.3. Retinal OCT 

2.9. Electroretinography

2.9.1. Electroretinography (ERG) 
2.9.2. Electroretinography Technique 
2.9.3. Erg Applications 

2.10. Other Diagnostic Imaging

2.10.1. MRI and CT 
2.10.2. Fluorescein Angiography 
2.10.3. Pachymetry 
2.10.4. Meibography 

Module 3. Eyelid and Nasolacrimal System Diseases and Surgery

3.1. Structure and Function 

3.1.1. Palpebral Surgery  
3.1.2. Anaesthetic Protocol 
3.1.3. Preparation and Positioning 
3.1.4. Suture Instruments and Materials  

3.2. Congenital and Developmental Abnormalities 

3.2.1. Physiological and Pathological Ankyloblepharon  
3.2.2. Colobomas  
3.2.3. Dermoids  
3.2.4. Distichiasis and Ectopic Cilia  
3.2.5. Entropion  
3.2.6. Ectropion  
3.2.7. Macroblepharon 

3.3. Surgical Techniques 

3.3.1. Entropion 
3.3.2. Ectropion 
3.3.3. Euriblefaron, Diamond Eye  
3.3.4. Trauma  

3.4. Blepharitis  

3.4.1. Bacterial 
3.4.2. Mycotic  
3.4.3. Parasitic  
3.4.4. Leishmania 
3.4.5. Immuno-Mediated  
3.4.6. Meibomyanitis  

3.5. Neoplasms     

3.5.1. Neoplasms in Dogs 
3.5.2. Neoplasms in Cats 

3.6. Reconstructive Surgery    

3.6.1. Advance Flaps 
3.6.2. Myocutaneous Tissue  
3.6.3. Tarsoconjunctival Tissue 

3.7. Nasolacrimal System  

3.7.1. Embryology 
3.7.2. Anatomy and Physiology 
3.7.3. Clinical Signs of Nasolacrimal System Disease  
3.7.4. Diagnostic techniques  

3.7.4.1. Schirmer Test  
3.7.4.2. Cytology and Microbiological Cultures  
3.7.4.3. Jones Test and Nasolacrimal Washing  
3.7.4.4. Imaging  

3.7.4.4.1. CAT 
3.7.4.4.2. MRI 
3.7.4.4.3. Ultrasonography 

3.8. Systemic Pathology in Children  

3.8.1. Lacerations 
3.8.2. Dacryocystitis 
3.8.3. Nasolacrimal Duct Neoplasms  

3.9. Lacrimal Secretory System  

3.9.1. Lacrimal Formation and Components  
3.9.2. Pre-Corneal Film Pathologies  
3.9.3. Quantitative Lacrimal Deficiency  
3.9.4. Qualitative Lacrimal Deficiency  
3.9.5. Lacrimal Quantity and Quality Diagnosis  
3.9.6. Treatment of Quantitative and Qualitative Lacrimal Deficiency  

3.10. New Therapies in Quantitative and Qualitative Lacrimal Deficiency   

3.10.1. New Therapies in Quantitative Lacrimal Deficiency 
3.10.2. New Therapies in Qualitative Lacrimal Deficiency 

Module 4. Conjunctiva, Nictitating Membrane and Orbit Diseases and Surgery 

4.1. Conjunctiva Physiology  

4.1.1. Conjunctiva Anatomy and Physiology  
4.1.2. Disease Response  
4.1.3. Infectious Conjunctivitis 

4.1.3.1. Bacterial Conjunctivitis 
4.1.3.2. Viral Conjunctivitis 
4.1.3.3. Fungal Conjunctivitis 
4.1.3.4. Rickettsial Conjunctivitis 
4.1.3.5. Parasitic Conjunctivitis 

4.2. Conjunctivitis Classification 

4.2.1. Non-Infectious Conjunctivitis 

4.2.1.1. Allergic Conjunctivitis 
4.2.1.2. Follicular Conjunctivitis  
4.2.1.3. Ligneous Conjunctivitis 
4.2.1.4. Lipogranulomatous Conjunctivitis 
4.2.1.5. Conjunctivitis Associated with Lacrimal Deficiency 
4.2.1.6. Conjunctivitis Associated with Anatomical Alterations 

4.2.2. Conjunctival Neoplasms 

4.3. Non-Neoplastic Mass Conjunctivitis 

4.3.1. Non-Neoplastic Masses

4.3.1.1. Inflammatory 
4.3.1.2. Dermoid 
4.3.1.3. Parasitic 
4.3.1.4. Fat Prolapse 
4.3.1.5. Cysts 

4.4. Conjunctival Surgery 

4.4.1. Instruments 
4.4.2. Lacerations 
4.4.3. Conjunctival Tissue 
4.4.4. Simblepharon
4.4.5. Conjunctival Masses 

4.5. Nictitating Membrane Anatomical Variation 

4.5.1. Anatomy and Physiology 
4.5.2. Exploration  
4.5.3. Anatomical Variation 

4.5.3.1. Pigmentation Variation 
4.5.3.2. Ercycling 

4.6. Nictitating Membrane Acquired Diseases 

4.6.1. Congenital or Developmental Abnormalities 

4.6.1.1. Cartilage Eversion 
4.6.1.2. Nictitating Gland Prolapse 

4.6.2. Acquired Pathologies 

4.6.2.1. Lacerations 
4.6.2.2. Foreign Bodies 
4.6.2.3. Inflammatory Diseases 
4.6.2.4. Nictitating Membrane Protrusion 
4.6.2.5. Neoplasms 

4.7. Nictitating Membrane Surgery

4.7.1. Cartilage Eversion 
4.7.2. Gland Prolapse 
4.7.3. Third Eyelid Flap 

4.8. Orbit Orbital Diseases 

4.8.1. Anatomy  
4.8.2. Pathological Mechanisms 
4.8.3. Orbital Diseases 

4.8.3.1. Orbital Cellulitis Retrobulbar Abscess 
4.8.3.2. Orbital Cystic Lesions 
4.8.3.3. Vascular Anomalies  
4.8.3.4. Myositis 
4.8.3.5. Neoplasms 
4.8.3.6. Trauma  

4.8.3.6.1. Fractures  
4.8.3.6.2. Emphysema 
4.8.3.6.3. Ocular Proptosis 

4.8.3.7. Fat Prolapse 

4.9. Ocular Globe and Orbit 

4.9.1. Preparation 
4.9.2. Anesthesia 
4.9.3. Enucleation 
4.9.4. Exanteration 

4.10. Obitotomy and Orbitectomy 

4.10.1. Orbital Prosthesis 
4.10.2. Evisceration and Intrascleral Prosthesis 
4.10.3. Orbitotomy and Orbitectomy  

Module 5. Corneal Diseases and Surgery

5.1. Physiology of Cornea  

5.1.1. Clarity Corneal Transparency  
5.1.2. Corneal Scarring  

5.1.2.1. Proteases and Protease Inhibitors in the Corneal Healing Process  
5.1.2.2. Proteinase  

5.1.3. Corneal Epithelial, Endothelial pigmentation  
5.1.4. Corneal Edema, Corneal Vascularization  

5.2. Congenital and Developmental Diseases  

5.2.1. Microcornea Megalocornea  
5.2.2. Dermoid cysts  
5.2.3. Congenital Opacities Persistent Pupillary Membranes 
5.2.4. Coloboma Staphyloma  

5.3. Inflammatory Keratopathies  

5.3.1. Ulcerative Keratitis  
5.3.2. Bacterial Keratitis  
5.3.3. Viral Keratitis  
5.3.4. Mycotic Keratitis  

5.4. Corneal Ulcers  

5.4.1. Ulcer Depth Identification  
5.4.2. Chronic Spontaneous Chronic Spontaneous Epithelial Defects (SCCEDs) 

5.5. Corneal Surgery  

5.5.1. Corneal Adhesives  
5.5.2. Conjunctival Tissue  
5.5.3. Use of Biological Membranes  
5.5.4. Keratoplasties  

5.6. Non-Ulcerative Keratitis  

5.6.1. Pigmentary Keratitis  
5.6.2. Superficial Keratitis  
5.6.3. Keratitis Punctata  
5.6.4. Marginal Keratitis  
5.6.5. Keratitis Punctata  
5.6.6. Neurogenic Keratitis  

5.7. Non-Inflammatory Keratopathies  

5.7.1. Corneal Dystrophies  
5.7.2. Lipid Keratopathy  
5.7.3. Corneal Degeneration  
5.7.4. Endothelial Dystrophy  
5.7.5. Florida Keratopathy  
5.7.6. Surgery for Keratopathies  

5.8. Corneal Neoplasms      

5.8.1. Neoplasms in Dogs 
5.8.2. Neoplasms in Cats 

5.9. Sclera  

5.9.1. Structure and Function  
5.9.2. Inflammatory Diseases  

5.9.2.1. Episcleritis  

5.9.2.1.1. Nodular Granulomatous  

5.9.3. Scleritis  

5.9.3.1. Non-Necrotizing  
5.9.3.2. Necrotizing  

5.9.4. Trauma Laceration  

5.10. Cross Linking. Cryotherapy  

5.10.1. Cross linking and Cryotherapy  
5.10.2. Keratopathies Treated with Cross Linking  
5.10.3. Keratopathies Treated with Cryotherapy 

Module 6. Lens Diseases and Surgery

6.1. Embryology and Anatomy   

6.1.1. Embryology 
6.1.2. Anatomy  

6.2. Crystalline Lens Exploration 

6.2.1. Crystalline Lens Exploration 
6.2.2. Advanced Examination 

6.3. Congenital Alterations 

6.3.1. Aphakia 
6.3.2. Coloboma 
6.3.3. Microphakia 
6.3.4. Lenticon 
6.3.5. PHPV/TVL 
6.3.6. Cataracts 

6.4. Acquired Disorders 

6.4.1. Cataracts, Classification 
6.4.2. Characterization, Location 
6.4.3. Age 

6.4.3.1. Congenital 
6.4.3.2. Hereditary 
6.4.3.3. Aged Related 

6.4.4. Primary vs. Secondary 

6.5. Metabolic and Systemic Cataracts 

6.5.1. Ions 
6.5.2. Diabetes 
6.5.3. Galactosemia 
6.5.4. Infectious Diseases 

6.6. Metabolic and Systemic Cataract Treatment 

6.6.1. Doctor 
6.6.2. Surgical 

6.7. Visual Alterations and Untreated Cataract Sequelae   

6.7.1. Visual Alterations  
6.7.2. Untreated Cataract Sequelae 

6.7.2.1. Iris Hyperpigmentation 
6.7.2.2. Other Sequelae 

6.8. Dislocation 

6.8.1. Primary Dislocation 
6.8.2. Secondary Dislocation 

6.9. Cataract Surgery 

6.9.1. Patient Selection 
6.9.2. Complementary Tests 

6.9.2.1. Ultrasound 
6.9.2.2. Gonioscopy 
6.9.2.3. ERG 

6.9.3. Complications 

6.9.3.1. Pre-Surgery 
6.9.3.2. Intra-Operative 
6.9.3.3. Post-Operatives 

6.9.4. Patient Preparation 
6.9.5. Equipment 
6.9.6. Surgery 

6.10. Lens Luxation Surgery 

6.10.1. Patient Selection 
6.10.2. Patient Preparation 
6.10.3. Intraoperative complications 
6.10.4. Techniques  

Module 7. Uveal and Retinal Diseases and Surgery

7.1. Uveal Embryology and Anatomy   

7.1.1. Embryology 
7.1.2. Anatomy 

7.2. Congenital Disorders 

7.2.1. Heterochromia 
7.2.2. Colobomas 
7.2.3. Persistent Pupillary Membranes 
7.2.4. Discoria 

7.3. Degenerative Disorders 

7.3.1. Iris Atrophy 
7.3.2. Iris Cysts 

7.4. Uveal Inflammation 

7.4.1. Intraocular Causes 
7.4.2. Systemic Causes 

7.5. Diagnosis and Clinical introduction   

7.5.1. Ophthalmologic Examination 
7.5.2. Neuro-Ophthalmology 

7.6. Discoloration  

7.6.1. Benign 
7.6.2. Neoplasms 

7.6.2.1. Primary 
7.6.2.2. Metastatic 

7.7. Specific Treatments Based on Cause  

7.7.1. Topical Treatments 
7.7.2. Systemic Adjuvant Therapy 
7.7.3. Specific Therapy by Etiology 
7.7.4. Sequelae Control 

7.8. Variations in Ocular Fundus Normality   

7.8.1. Age 
7.8.2. Albinism

7.9. Retinal Disorders  

7.9.1. On Development 
7.9.2. Hereditary 
7.9.3. Storage Related 
7.9.4. Inflammatory (Causes) 
7.9.5. Various 

7.9.5.1. SARDs 
7.9.5.2. CAR 
7.9.5.3. Immune-Mediated Retinitis 
7.9.5.4. Uveodermatological Syndrome 
7.9.5.5. Nutritional 
7.9.5.6. Neoplasms 

7.10. Medical Management vs. Surgical Retinal Lesions  

7.10.1. Types of Retinal Detachment 
7.10.2. Genetic Disorders 

Module 8. Exotic Animal Ophthalmology  

8.1. Ophthalmology in Exotic Animals 

8.1.1. Environment 
8.1.2. Assessment of Vision 
8.1.3. Comparative Retinal Anatomy
8.1.4. Restrictions
8.1.5. Visual Reflexes
8.1.6. Exotic Animal Medical Therapy 
8.1.7. Surgical Procedures in Exotic Animals

8.2. Rabbits 

8.2.1. Anatomy 
8.2.2. Exploration 
8.2.3. Orbital Diseases 
8.2.4. Palpebral Diseases 
8.2.5. Conjunctival Pathologies 
8.2.6. Nasolagrimal System Diseases  
8.2.7. Corneal Pathology 
8.2.8. Cataracts 
8.2.9. Glaucoma 

8.3. Guinea Pig  

8.3.1. Anatomy 
8.3.2. Palpebral Diseases  
8.3.3. Conjunctival Pathologies 
8.3.4. Corneal Pathologies 
8.3.5. Cataracts 
8.3.6. Heterotopic Bone 

8.4. Rats and Mice 

8.4.1. Anatomy 
8.4.2. Exploration 
8.4.3. Conjunctival and Nasolacrimal System Pathologies 
8.4.4. Corneal Pathologies 
8.4.5. Cataracts 
8.4.6. Uveal Pathologies 
8.4.7. Posterior Segment Abnormalities 

8.5. Wild Animals

8.5.1. General Characteristics
8.5.2. Examination (Daytime vs. Night-time) 
8.5.3. Complementary Tests 
8.5.4. Medical and Surgical Restrictions 
8.5.5. Administration Routes  
8.5.6. Surgical Procedures ( Species Differences) 
8.5.7. Postoperative Care

8.6. Ferrets 

8.6.1. Anatomy 
8.6.2. Exploration  
8.6.3. Orbital Diseases 
8.6.4. Conjunctival Pathologies 
8.6.5. Corneal Pathologies 
8.6.6. Cataracts 
8.6.7. Uveal Pathology 
8.6.8. Glaucoma

8.7. Other Exotic Mammals 

8.7.1. Hamsters 
8.7.2. Chipmunks 
8.7.3. Gerbils 
8.7.4. Degus 
8.7.5. Hedgehogs 

8.8. Birds  

8.8.1. Anatomy 
8.8.2. Exploration 
8.8.3. Trauma 
8.8.4. Palpebral Diseases 
8.8.5. Conjunctival Pathologies 
8.8.6. Corneal Pathologies 
8.8.7. Uveal Pathology 
8.8.8. Cataracts 
8.8.9. Horner Syndrome 
8.8.10. Enucleation 

8.9. Reptiles Anatomy and Physiology 

8.9.1. Anatomy and Physiology  
8.9.2. Speculum and Its Pathologies 
8.9.3. Microphthalmia and Anophthalmia 
8.9.4. Megaglobus 

8.10. Reptiles Pathologies 

8.10.1. Hypovitaminosis A in Tortoises 
8.10.2. Palpebral Diseases and Dacryocystitis 
8.10.3. Conjunctival Pathologies 
8.10.4. Corneal Pathologies  
8.10.5. Uveal Pathologies 
8.10.6. Cataracts  
8.10.7. Posterior Segment Abnormalities 

8.11. Fish and Amphibians 

8.11.1. Fish 

8.11.1.1. Anatomy 
8.11.1.2. Exploration 
8.11.1.3. Ocular Pathology 

8.11.2. Amphibians 

8.11.2.1. Anatomy 
8.11.2.2. Exploration 
8.11.2.3. Ocular Pathology 

Module 9. Glaucoma

9.1. Anatomy and Embryology  

9.1.1 Embryological Development of the Iridocorneal Angle 
9.1.2. Embryological Development of the Trabecular Mesh 
9.1.3. Intraocular Hypertension-Associated Anatomical Changes 

9.2. Glaucoma Classifications 

9.2.1. Classification According to Etiology 

9.2.1.1. Primary 
9.2.1.2. Secondary 

9.3. Diagnosis  

9.3.1. Ophthalmologic Examination 

9.3.1.1. Fundoscopy 
9.3.1.2. Neuro-Ophthalmology 

9.3.2. Tonometry 
9.3.3. Gonioscopy 
9.3.4. Complementary Imaging Techniques 

9.3.4.1. UBM 
9.3.4.2. High-Resolution Ultrasonography 
9.3.4.3. Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) 

9.4. Clinical Signs 

9.4.1. Intraocular Hypertension 
9.4.2. Acute Primary Glaucoma 
9.4.3. Secondary Glaucoma     

9.4.3.1. Acute 
9.4.3.2. Chronic 

9.5. Primary Canine Glaucoma (According to Breeds) 

9.5.1. Heritability 
9.5.2. Genetic Tests 
9.5.3. Pectinate Ligament Dysplasia 
9.5.4. Sex-Age Relationship 
9.5.5. Open-Angle Glaucoma 

9.5.5.1. Beagle 
9.5.5.2. Norwegian Elkhound 
9.5.5.3. Petit Basset Griffon 

9.5.6. Closed-Angle Glaucoma 

9.5.6.1. American Cocker Spaniel 
9.5.6.2. Basset Hound 
9.5.6.3. Chow Chow 
9.5.6.4. Samoyed 
9.5.6.5. Other Breeds 

9.6. Secondary Glaucoma 

9.6.1. Causes 

9.6.1.1. Primary Lens Luxation 
9.6.1.2. Uveitis 
9.6.1.3. Phacomorphic 
9.6.1.4. Associated with Crystalline Surgery 
9.6.1.5. Malignant Glaucoma 
9.6.1.6. Trauma 
9.6.1.7. Pigmentary Glaucoma 
9.6.1.8. Retinal Disorders 
9.6.1.9. Neoplasms 

9.7. Feline Glaucoma (Primary and Secondary) 

9.7.1. Causes 

9.7.1.1. Congenital 
9.7.1.2. Primary 
9.7.1.3. Secondary 

9.7.2. Clinical Signs 
9.7.3. Medical Treatment 

9.7.3.1. Feline Species-Specific Characteristics  

9.7.4. Surgical Management 

9.8. Medical Treatment 

9.8.1. Decreased Aqueous Humor Production 
9.8.2. Increased Secondary Channel Drainage 
9.8.3. Neuro-Protection 

9.9. Surgical Management 

9.9.1. Patient Selection 
9.9.2. Pre- and Post-Operative Patient Treatment 
9.9.3. Valve Attachment 

9.9.3.1. Surgical Technique 
9.9.3.2. Post-Operative Care 
9.9.3.3. Surgical Results 

9.9.4. Cyclodestruction 

9.9.4.1. Photocoagulation 
9.9.4.2. Chemical 
9.9.4.3. Thermal 

9.10. Ocular Changes in Chronic Glaucomas 

9.10.1. Cornea 
9.10.2. Sclera 
9.10.3. Lens 
9.10.4. Uvea 
9.10.5. Retina 
9.10.6. Optic Nerve 

Module 10. Systemic Diseases

10.1. Congenital Diseases  

10.1.1. Albinism and Coat Color-Related Conditions  
10.1.2. Dysplasia Osteochondrodysplasia 
10.1.3. Hydrocephalus  
10.1.4. Myasthenia Gravis  

10.2. Developmental Disorders  

10.2.1. Metabolic Diseases  
10.2.2. Lysosomal Storage  
10.2.3. Lipofuscinosis  
10.2.4. Gangliosidosis  
10.2.5. Mucopolysaccharidosis  

10.3. Acquired Diseases 

10.3.1. Hypertension  
10.3.2. Hematologic Alterations  
10.3.3. Vascular Accidents  

10.4. Idiopathic Diseases  

10.4.1. Meningoencefalitis Granulomatosa  
10.4.2. Dysautonomia 
10.4.3. Acute Acquired Blindness Syndrome SARDS 

10.5. Immune-Mediated Diseases  

10.5.1. Juvenile Cellulitis 
10.5.2. Immune-Mediated Retinitis  
10.5.3. Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca  
10.5.4. Myositis  

10.5.4.1. Masticatory Muscles  
10.5.4.2. Extraocular Muscles 

10.5.5. Uveodermatological Syndrome  

10.6. Infectious Diseases  

10.6.1. Algae 
10.6.2. Bacterial  
10.6.3. Mycotic  
10.6.4. Parasitic  
10.6.5. Protozoa  
10.6.6. Rickettsia  
10.6.7. Viral  

10.7. Metabolic Diseases  

10.7.1. Diabetes Mellitus  
10.7.2. Hypothyroidism  
10.7.3. Hyperadrenocorticism  

10.8. Neoplasms 

10.8.1. Sine-Cavernous Syndrome  
10.8.2. Lymphoma  
10.8.3. Central Neoplasms  

10.9. Nutritional Disorders  

10.9.1. Milk Substitute Alterations  
10.9.2. Vitamin Deficiencies  
10.9.3. Ocular Manifestations caused by Toxic Substance Administration  

10.10. Ocular Manifestation of Systemic Disease in Felines  

10.10.1. Congenital and Developmental Diseases  
10.10.2. High Blood Pressure  
10.10.3. Hematologic Alterations  
10.10.4. Idiopathic Diseases  
10.10.5. Infectious Diseases  
10.10.6. Metabolic Diseases  
10.10.7. Neoplasms  
10.10.8. Nutritional Alterations  
10.10.9. Use of Toxic Medication

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